J Agric Food Chem. 2003 Feb 26;51(5):1500-5
Buckwheat honey increases serum antioxidant capacity in humans.
Gheldof N, Wang XH, Engeseth NJ.
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, 259 ERML, 1201 West Gregory Drive, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801, USA.

Honey has been known to exert significant in vitro antioxidant activity, in part due to its phenolic content. However, conclusions that the antioxidants in honey are or are not efficacious in the human body cannot be reached if its antioxidant action is not assessed as part of a human study. In the present study, the acute effect of consumption of 500 mL of water, water with buckwheat honey, black tea, black tea with sugar, or black tea with buckwheat honey on serum oxidative reactions was examined in 25 healthy men. Antioxidant capacity of human serum samples was measured using different methods: the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay, ex vivo susceptibility of serum lipoprotein to Cu(2+)-induced oxidation, and the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay. The results showed that the serum antioxidant capacity determined by ORAC increased significantly (p < 0.05) by 7% following consumption of buckwheat honey in water. No significant changes in serum antioxidant capacity could be established after the consumption of any of the other beverages. Ex vivo serum lipoprotein oxidation and TBARS values were not significantly altered after consumption of any of the five beverages. This study provides primary evidence of the in vivo antioxidant activity of buckwheat honey. However, long-term studies and epidemiological data are necessary to investigate whether honey consumption can exert overall antioxidant-related health benefits.

Int Immunopharmacol. 2003 Jan;3(1):129-36
Anti-allergic action of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) grain extract.
Kim CD, Lee WK, No KO, Park SK, Lee MH, Lim SR, Roh SS.
Oriental Hospital, Oriental Medical College of Daejeon University, 22-5 Daeheung-dong, 301-724, Daejeon, South Korea.

The anti-allergic action of buckwheat grain extract (BGE) was investigated using rodent experimental models. The oral, intraperitoneal and intradermal administration of BGE significantly inhibited the compound 48/80-induced vascular permeability documented by Evans blue extravasation. In addition, BGE showed potent inhibitory effect on passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) activated by anti-dinitrophenyl (DNP) IgE when orally administered. In an in vitro study, BGE revealed to possess inhibitory potential on the compound 48/80-induced histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells (RPMC). Moreover, BGE inhibited the IL-4 and TNF-alpha mRNA induction by PMA and A23187 in human leukemia mast cells, HMC-1. Taken together, these results suggest that anti-allergic action of BGE may be due to the inhibition of histamine release and cytokine gene _expression in the mast cells.

Biol Pharm Bull. 2001 Mar;24(3):209-13
Antioxidant activities of buckwheat hull extract toward various oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo.
Mukoda T, Sun B, Ishiguro A.
Department of Biochemistry, Amino Up Chemical Co., Ltd., Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.

We have undertaken four basic in vitro studies and an animal experiment to obtain information about the antioxidant activities of buckwheat hull extract (BWHE). In the in vitro studies, BWHE scavenged super oxide anion produced in the xanthine/xanthine oxidase system (IC50=11.4 microg phenolic compound/ml), and strongly inhibited autoxidation of linoleic acid (IC50=6.2 microg phenolic compound/ml). Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation induced by Cu2+ ion was also protected by BWHE. In the animal experiment, ddY mice were fed a standard diet supplemented with 0.75% BWHE for 14 d. In blood, liver and brain of the mice TBARS and fluorescent substance concentration were significantly decreased compared with those of non-treated mice. SOD like activity in serum also significantly rose by BWHE treatment. BWHE was shown to be effective for protecting biological systems against various oxidative stresses in vitro, and to have antioxidant activity in vivo.

J Nutr. 1997 Jul;127(7):1395-400
Consumption of buckwheat protein lowers plasma cholesterol and raises fecal neutral sterols in cholesterol-Fed rats because of its low digestibility.
Kayashita J, Shimaoka I, Nakajoh M, Yamazaki M, Kato N.
Development, Health Care, Kissei Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yoshino, Matsumoto 399, Japan.

Buckwheat protein product (BWP) has a strong hypocholesterolemic activity in rats fed a cholesterol-enriched diet. In this study, we examined the influence of BWP on fecal excretion of sterols and nitrogen in rats fed a diet containing 5 g/kg cholesterol and 1.25 g/kg sodium cholate, and we examined whether the cholesterol-lowering activity of BWP is due to its low digestibility. In Experiment 1, rats fed BWP for 3 wk had significantly lower concentrations of plasma cholesterol and enhanced excretion of fecal total neutral sterols and nitrogen compared with rats fed casein. There was a significant correlation between fecal total neutral sterols and nitrogen (r = 0.89, P < 0.01). Fecal excretion of acidic sterols was unaffected by BWP. In Experiment 2, plasma cholesterol in rats fed trypsin-digested BWP for 2 wk was significantly higher than that in rats fed intact BWP. In Experiment 3, rats were fed BWP, low-molecular-weight fraction of the digest of BWP (LMF ) or high-molecular-weight fraction of the digest of BWP (HMF ) for 3 wk. Plasma cholesterol was lower in the BWP group than in the LMF group (P < 0.05), whereas that in the HMF group was intermediate. The in vitro digestibility of BWP with pepsin and pancreatin was significantly lower than that of casein. The results suggest that the cholesterol-lowering effect of BWP is mediated by higher fecal excretion of neutral sterols and that lower digestibility of BWP is at least partially responsible for the effect.

Diabet Med. 1989 May-Jun;6(4):337-41
Postprandial glucose and insulin responses to rolled oats ingested raw, cooked or as a mixture with raisins in normal subjects and type 2 diabetic patients.
Rasmussen O, Winther E, Hermansen K.
Second University Clinic of Internal Medicine, Aarhus Kommune-hospital, Denmark.

Cooking and processing of food may account for differences in blood glucose and insulin responses to food with similar contents of carbohydrate, fat, and protein. The present study was carried out to see if short-term cooking of rolled oats caused an increase in blood glucose. Furthermore, we wanted to see if dried fruit could substitute for some of the starch without deterioration of the postprandial blood glucose response. We therefore compared the blood glucose and insulin responses to three isocaloric, carbohydrate equivalent meals in 11 normal subjects and 9 Type 2 diabetic patients. Meals composed either of raw rolled oats, oatmeal porridge or a mixture of raw rolled oats with raisins were served. In normal subjects, the three meals produced similar glucose (75 +/- 22, 51 +/- 16 and 71 +/- 23 (+/- SE) mmol l-1 180 min, respectively) and insulin response curves (3160 +/- 507, 2985 +/- 632 and 2775 +/- 398 mU l-1 180 min, respectively). Type 2 diabetic patients also showed similar postprandial blood glucose (515 +/- 95, 531 +/- 83 and 409 +/- 46 mmol l-1 180 min, respectively) and insulin (5121 +/- 850, 6434 +/- 927 and 6021 +/- 974 mU l-1 180 min, respectively) responses to the three meals. Thus short-term cooking of rolled oats has no deleterious effect on blood glucose and insulin responses, and substitution of 25% of the starch meal with simple sugars (raisins) did not affect the blood glucose or insulin responses.

Am J Clin Nutr. 1981 Oct;34(10):2061-7
The effect of rolled oats on blood lipids and fecal steroid excretion in man.
Judd PA, Truswell AS.
Rolled oats (125 g daily) were substituted for breakfast cereals and wheat flour in the metabolically controlled diets of 10 subjects for 3 wk. Fat and energy intakes in the 2-wk control periods before and after the oat period were adjusted by addition of an oil with a similar fatty acid composition to the lipid in the oats. Plasma total cholesterol concentrations were reduced in seven of 10 subjects, but over the whole group the mean reduction of 8% was not significant (0.05 less than p less than 0.01). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations and plasma triglyceride levels were unchanged. Fecal fat excretion was increased by 47% (p less 0.005) and fecal bile acid excretion by 35% (p less than 0.01) but neutral steroid excretion was unchanged on the oatmeal diet.

Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Apr;77(4):967-74
Whole-grain rye and wheat foods and markers of bowel health in overweight middle-aged men.
McIntosh GH, Noakes M, Royle PJ, Foster PR.
Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation Health Sciences and Nutrition, Adelaide, Australia.

BACKGROUND: Whole-grain cereal foods including rye have been identified as providing significant health benefits that do not occur when refined-cereal foods are ingested. OBJECTIVES: Foods (90 g) containing whole-grain rye flour and whole-grain wheat flour were compared with low-fiber refined-cereal foods for their effects on markers of bowel health and the metabolic markers insulin and glucose. DESIGN: Three 4-wk interventions were undertaken in a randomized crossover design with 28 overweight men aged 40-65 y who had no history of bowel disease. Against a background intake of 14 g dietary fiber (DF), the men were fed low-fiber cereal grain foods providing 5 g DF for a total of 19 g DF/d. High-fiber wheat foods provided 18 g DF, and high-fiber rye foods provided 18 g DF, both giving a total of 32 g DF/d. Fecal samples (48-h) and fasting and postprandial blood samples were collected at the end of each period and assayed. RESULTS: Both high-fiber rye and wheat foods increased fecal output by 33-36% (P = 0.004) and reduced fecal beta-glucuronidase activity by 29% (P = 0.027). Postprandial plasma insulin was decreased by 46-49% (P = 0.0001) and postprandial plasma glucose by 16-19% (P = 0.0005). Rye foods were associated with significantly (P = 0.0001) increased plasma enterolactone (47% and 71%) and fecal butyrate (26% and 36%), relative to wheat and low-fiber options, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: High-fiber rye and wheat food consumption improved several markers of bowel and metabolic health relative to that of low-fiber food. Fiber from rye appears more effective than that from wheat in overall improvement of biomarkers of bowel health.

Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Feb;77(2):385-91
High-fiber rye bread and insulin secretion and sensitivity in healthy postmenopausal women.
Juntunen KS, Laaksonen DE, Poutanen KS, Niskanen LK, Mykkanen HM.
Department of Clinical Nutrition, University of Kuopio, Kuopio, Finland.

BACKGROUND: Fiber and whole-cereal intakes may protect against hyperinsulinemia and the risk of type 2 diabetes. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to study whether the long-term use of high-fiber rye bread and white-wheat bread modifies glucose and insulin metabolism in healthy postmenopausal women. DESIGN: The study was a randomized crossover trial consisting of 8-wk test and 8-wk washout periods. The subjects were 20 postmenopausal women [macro x +/- SD age: 59 +/- 6.0 y; body mass index (in kg/m(2)): 27.5 +/- 2.9; baseline fasting serum cholesterol: 6.5 +/- 0.8 mmol/L], of whom 3 had impaired glucose tolerance as determined by a 2-h oral-glucose-tolerance test. The test breads were high-fiber rye and white-wheat breads, planned to make up > or =20% of energy. Fasting blood samples were collected for the measurement of plasma glucose and insulin at the beginning and at the end of both bread periods. The frequently sampled intravenous-glucose-tolerance test was performed at the run-in and at the end of both bread periods. The acute insulin response, insulin sensitivity, and glucose effectiveness were calculated. RESULTS: The rye bread made up 23.4 +/- 4.3% and wheat bread 26.7 +/- 8.2% of total energy intake. Compared with that during the run-in period, the acute insulin response increased significantly more during the rye bread period (9.9 +/- 24.2%) than during the wheat bread period (2.8 +/- 36.3%; P = 0.047). Other measured variables did not change significantly during the study. CONCLUSIONS: Modification of carbohydrate intake by high-fiber rye bread did not alter insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal, hypercholesterolemic women. High-fiber rye bread appears to enhance insulin secretion, possibly indicating improvement of b cell function.

J Agric Food Chem. 2001 Aug;49(8):4090-6
Antioxidant effects of phenolic rye (Secale cereale L.) extracts, monomeric hydroxycinnamates, and ferulic acid dehydrodimers on human low-density lipoproteins.
Andreasen MF, Landbo AK, Christensen LP, Hansen A, Meyer AS.
Department of Horticulture, Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Kirstinebjergvej 10, DK-5792 Aarslev, Denmark.

Dietary antioxidants that protect low-density lipoprotein (LDL) from oxidation may help to prevent atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. The antioxidant activities of purified monomeric and dimeric hydroxycinnamates and of phenolic extracts from rye (whole grain, bran, and flour) were investigated using an in vitro copper-catalyzed human LDL oxidation assay. The most abundant ferulic acid dehydrodimer (diFA) found in rye, 8-O-4-diFA, was a slightly better antioxidant than ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid. The antioxidant activity of the 8-5-diFA was comparable to that of ferulic acid, but neither 5-5-diFA nor 8-5-benzofuran-diFA inhibited LDL oxidation when added at 10-40 microM. The antioxidant activity of the monomeric hydroxycinnamates decreased in the following order: caffeic acid > sinapic acid > ferulic acid > p-coumaric acid. The antioxidant activity of rye extracts was significantly correlated with their total content of monomeric and dimeric hydroxycinnamates, and the rye bran extract was the most potent. The data suggest that especially rye bran provides a source of dietary phenolic antioxidants that may have potential health effects.

Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Jan;61(1):75-81
Influence of the physical form of barley grain on the digestion of its starch in the human small intestine and implications for health.
Livesey G, Wilkinson JA, Roe M, Faulks R, Clark S, Brown JC, Kennedy H, Elia M.
Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney, UK.

It has been suggested that incomplete digestion of cereal starch explains the low energy values of certain cereals of large particle size. We used human subjects with ileostomies to investigate the digestion of barley and to determine whether the physical form of barley affects stomal excretion of starch, glucooligosaccharides, nitrogen, fat, and calculated energy. Only 2 +/- 1% of starch remained undigested after finely milled barley was eaten, but after flaked barley was eaten 17 +/- 1% resisted digestion, partly as oligosaccharides (G1-G10) but largely as intact unpitted starch granules bound by intact cell walls. The calculated energy excretion from the stoma was three times higher after flaked than after milled barley [51.5 decreasing to 15.3 kJ/g nonstarch polysaccharide (NSP, P < 0.001]. NSP, starch, and fat made almost equal contributions to the higher energy excretion. It is concluded that possibly the botanical source of cereals and certainly processing, other than retrogradation of the starch, are important determinants of starch digestibility and energy value. Possible clinical implications are introduced.

J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2002 Apr;48(2):165-8
Amelioratory effect of barley tea drinking on blood fluidity.
Suganuma H, Inakuma T, Kikuchi Y.
Research Institute, Kagome Co., Ltd., Nasu-gun, Tochigi, Japan.

Effects of barley tea drinking on blood fluidity were evaluated by measuring the passage time of whole blood with a microchannel array flow analyzer (MC-FAN). The ingestion of barley tea in 250 mL amounts decreased the passage time of whole blood, but this did not occur with the ingestion of the same volume of water. 2,3,5-Trimethyl pyrazine at the same level as in barley tea also caused a significantly decreased time of blood passage in vitro. This suggests that alkylpyrazines may serve as factors affecting the blood fluidity in barley tea drinking.

J Nutr. 2002 Jun;132(6):1173-5
Barley bread containing lactic acid improves glucose tolerance at a subsequent meal in healthy men and women.
Ostman EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl HG, Bjorck IM.
Department of Applied Nutrition and Food Chemistry, Center for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lund University, Sweden.

In the present study, we evaluated whether a low glycemic index (GI) breakfast with lactic acid bread had an effect on glucose tolerance and insulinemia at a subsequent high GI lunch meal. A barley bread containing lactic acid and a reference barley bread were consumed in the morning after an overnight fast in random order by 10 healthy men and women. Four hours after the breakfasts, the subjects ate a standardized high GI lunch, and the blood glucose and insulin responses were measured for the next 3 h. Significant lowerings of the incremental glycemic area (-23%, P = 0.033) and of the glucose response at 95 min were found after the lunch meal when the barley bread with lactic acid was given as a breakfast. At 45 min after the lunch meal, the insulin level was significantly lower (-21%, P = 0.045) after the lactic acid bread breakfast, compared with the barley bread breakfast without lactic acid. We concluded that barley bread containing lactic acid eaten at breakfast has the potential to improve second-meal glucose tolerance at a high GI lunch meal 4 h later.

Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1998 Dec;12(12):1225-30
Treatment of ulcerative colitis with germinated barley foodstuff feeding: a pilot study.
Mitsuyama K, Saiki T, Kanauchi O, Iwanaga T, Tomiyasu N, Nishiyama T, Tateishi H, Shirachi A, Ide M, Suzuki A, Noguchi K, Ikeda H, Toyonaga A, Sata M.
Second Department of Medicine, Kurume University School of Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan.

BACKGROUND: Germinated barley foodstuff (GBF) has been shown to attenuate intestinal injury in animal models, largely by increasing luminal short-chain fatty acid production. AIM: To investigate the safety and efficacy of GBF in the treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC). METHODS: Ten patients with active UC received 30 g of GBF daily for 4 weeks in an open-label treatment protocol while the baseline anti-inflammatory therapy was continued. The response to treatment was evaluated clinically and endoscopically. Pre- and post-treatment stool concentrations of short-chain fatty acids were measured by gas-liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Patients showed improvement in their clinical activity index scores, with a significant decrease in the score from 6.9+/-1.4 to 2.8+/-1.5 (mean+/-S.E.M., P < 0.05). The endoscopic index score fell from 6.1+/-2.3 to 3.8+/-2.3 (P < 0.0001). Patients showed an increase in stool butyrate concentrations after GBF treatment (P < 0.05). No side-effects were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Oral GBF therapy may have a place in management of ulcerative colitis, but controlled studies are needed to demonstrate its efficacy in the treatment of this disorder.

J Am Diet Assoc. 1994 Jan;94(1):65-70
Cholesterol-lowering effect of barley bran flour and oil.
Lupton JR, Robinson MC, Morin JL.
Nutrition Faculty, Texas A&M University, College Station 77843-2471.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of adding barley bran flour and a barley oil extract to a fat-modified diet on serum lipids in persons with hypercholesterolemia. DESIGN: The basic design of the study was a randomized, 30-day intervention trial. It included a neutral-fiber control group and a 1-week preintervention period for the collection of baseline data. SUBJECTS: The subjects were 79 men and women with hypercholesterolemia. Subjects had a mean age of 48.2 years, and all completed the study. INTERVENTION: All participants were instructed to follow the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) step 1 diet and were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: 20 g added cellulose, 3 g added barley oil extract, or 30 g added barley bran flour. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Total serum cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were measured, along with serum triglycerides, before the intervention, at week 1, at week 3, and at the end of the intervention. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Student's paired t test was used to detect significant changes within each treatment group from baseline to the end of the 30-day intervention. In addition, Pearson's correlation coefficients were used to detect significant correlations between the variables measured. RESULTS: Addition of barley bran flour significantly (P = .0001) decreased total serum cholesterol (-0.60 mmol/L) as did addition of barley oil (-0.50 mmol/L; P = .002) after 30 days of intervention. Similarly, LDL-C decreased 6.5% with addition of barley bran flour (P = .036) and 9.2% with addition of barley oil (P = .003). Total serum cholesterol or LDL-C of the cellulose control group did not decrease significantly over the same period. HDL-C decreased significantly in the cellulose control group and the barley bran flour group (-0.15 mmol/L, P = .012, and -0.15 mmol/L, P = .006, respectively), but not in the barley oil group. CONCLUSION: We conclude that addition of barley bran flour or barley oil enhances the cholesterol-lowering effect of the NCEP step 1 diet in individuals with hypercholesterolemia.

J Agric Food Chem. 2002 May 8;50(10):3030-6
Evaluation of the nutritional characteristics of a finger millet based complementary food.
Mbithi-Mwikya S, Van Camp J, Mamiro PR, Ooghe W, Kolsteren P, Huyghebaert A.
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana), kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), peanuts (Arachis hypogoea), and mango (Mangifera indica) were processed separately and then combined, on the basis of their amino acid scores and energy content, into a complementary food for children of weaning age. The finger millet and kidney beans were processed by germination, autoclaving, and lactic acid fermentation. A mixture containing, on a dry matter basis, 65.2, 19.1, 8.0, and 7.7% of the processed finger millet, kidney beans, peanuts, and mango, respectively, gave a composite protein with an in vitro protein digestibility of 90.2% and an amino acid chemical score of 0.84. This mixture had an energy density of 16.3 kJ.g(-1) of dry matter and a decreased antinutrient content and showed a measurable improvement in the in vitro extractability for calcium, iron, and zinc. A 33% (w/v) pap made from a mix of the processed ingredients had an energy density of 5.4 kJ.g(-1) of pap, which is sufficient to meet the energy requirements of well-nourished children of 6-24 months of age at three servings a day and at the FAO average breast-feeding frequency.

Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000 Nov;9(11):1163-70
Characterization of potentially chemopreventive phenols in extracts of brown rice that inhibit the growth of human breast and colon cancer cells.
Hudson EA, Dinh PA, Kokubun T, Simmonds MS, Gescher A.
Medical Research Council Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, United Kingdom.

Rice is a staple diet in Asia, where the incidence of breast and colon cancer is markedly below that in the Western world. We investigated potential colon and breast tumor-suppressive properties of rice, testing the hypothesis that rice contains phenols that interfere with the proliferation or colony-forming ability of breast or colon cells. Brown rice, its white milled counterpart, and bran from brown rice were boiled and extracted with ethyl acetate. The extracts were analyzed by high pressure liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Eight phenols, protocatechuic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, vanillic acid, methoxycinnamic acid, and tricin, were identified in the extracts of bran and intact brown rice. These extracts were separated into nine fractions by column chromatography. The effect of bran extract and its fractions at 100 microg/ml on cell viability and colony-forming ability of human-derived breast and colon cell lines was assessed. Bran extract decreased numbers of viable MDA MB 468 and HBL 100 breast cells and colon-derived SW 480 and human colonic epithelial cells as judged by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4 -sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium assay. It also reduced colony formation of SW 480 colon and MDA MB 468 breast cells. Of the eight phenols identified in the brown rice bran, when applied at 50 microM, caffeic acid decreased numbers of all cell types except HBL 100. Tricin, ferulic acid, and methoxycinnamic acid interfered with cell viability in one or more cell lines. Tricin (50 microM) and the other phenols (200 microM) inhibited colony formation of SW 480 cells. Clonogenicity of MDA MB 468 cells was inhibited by caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and tricin (50 microM). Tricin was the most potent anticlonogenic of the compounds with IC50s of 16 microM in the SW 480 colon cells and 0.6 microM in the MDA MB 468 breast cells. The results suggest that: (a) brown rice and bran contain compounds with putative cancer chemopreventive properties; (b) certain phenols contained in brown rice bran, e.g., tricin, may be associated with this activity; and (c) these phenols are present at much lower levels in white than in brown rice. Thus, the consumption of rice bran or brown rice instead of milled white rice may be advantageous with respect to cancer prevention.

J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 1987 Jun;33(3):207-18
Effects of brown rice on apparent digestibility and balance of nutrients in young men on low protein diets.
Miyoshi H, Okuda T, Okuda K, Koishi H.
Department of Food and Nutrition, Faculity of the Science of Living, Osaka City University, Japan.

The effect of brown rice with low protein intake was studied in five healthy young men. Feces were weighed, the digestibility of nutrients was determined, and blood tests were made. Each subject followed a diet consisting mainly of polished rice for 14 days and one consisting mainly of brown rice for 8 days. Both diets contained 0.5 g protein per kg of body weight. The brown rice diet had 3 times as much dietary fiber as the polished rice diet. On the brown rice diet, fecal weight increased, and apparent digestibility of energy, protein, and fat decreased, as did the absorption rates of Na, K, and P. The nitrogen balance was negative on both diets, but more negative on the brown rice diet. The phosphorus balance on the brown rice diet was significantly negative, but other minerals were not affected by the diet. The levels of cholesterol and minerals in the plasma were not significantly different on the polished rice diet and the brown rice diet. Comparing these results with data on standard protein intake (Miyoshi, H. et al (1986) J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol., 32, 581-589.), we concluded that brown rice reduced protein digestibility and nitrogen balance.

J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002 Nov 6;94(21):1620-5
Baseline dietary fiber intake and colorectal adenoma recurrence in the wheat bran fiber randomized trial.
Jacobs ET, Giuliano AR, Roe DJ, Guillen-Rodriguez JM, Alberts DS, Martinez ME.
Arizona Cancer Center and Nutritional Sciences Interdisciplinary Program, University of Arizona, Tucson 85716, USA.

BACKGROUND: The Wheat Bran Fiber (WBF) trial was a double-blind, high-fiber versus low-fiber phase III intervention trial in which participants were randomly assigned to receive a cereal fiber supplement of either 2.0 g/day or 13.5 g/day to assess whether a high-fiber supplement could decrease risk of recurrent colorectal adenomas. Although no effect of the supplement on polyp recurrence was observed, participants consumed a baseline average of 17.5 grams of fiber per day, which may have been sufficient to protect against adenoma recurrence. Therefore, we examined whether baseline fiber intake affected colorectal adenoma recurrence or modified the effect of treatment group in the WBF trial participants. METHODS: Quartiles of baseline fiber intake were calculated on the basis of the distribution in the study population. Odds ratios (ORs) for adenoma recurrence were calculated using the lowest quartile of fiber intake as the reference. The effect of fiber from specific food sources on adenoma recurrence was also assessed. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: Adjusted ORs (95% confidence intervals) for adenoma recurrence were 0.79 (0.56 to 1.12), 0.76 (0.54 to 1.08), and 0.83 (0.57 to 1.19) for the second, third, and fourth quartiles, respectively. Fiber from the three primary food sources (fruits; breads, cereals and crackers; and vegetables) had no appreciable effect on adenoma recurrence. Baseline fiber intake also had little effect on adenoma recurrence when the population was stratified by treatment group. In addition, there was no interaction between treatment group and quartile of baseline fiber intake. CONCLUSIONS: No association was found between amount of fiber consumed at baseline and adenoma recurrence in the WBF trial participants. The baseline fiber intake, whether considered as a whole or from specific sources, did not modify the effect of treatment group.

Diabetes Care. 2002 Sep;25(9):1522-8
Effect of wheat bran on glycemic control and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes.
Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Augustin LS, Martini MC, Axelsen M, Faulkner D, Vidgen E, Parker T, Lau H, Connelly PW, Teitel J, Singer W, Vandenbroucke AC, Leiter LA, Josse RG.
Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

OBJECTIVE: Cohort studies indicate that cereal fiber reduces the risk of diabetes and coronary heart disease (CHD). Therefore, we assessed the effect of wheat bran on glycemic control and CHD risk factors in type 2 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 23 subjects with type 2 diabetes (16 men and 7 postmenopausal women) completed two 3-month phases of a randomized crossover study. In the test phase, bread and breakfast cereals were provided as products high in cereal fiber (19 g/day additional cereal fiber). In the control phase, supplements were low in fiber (4 g/day additional cereal fiber). RESULTS: Between the test and control treatments, no differences were seen in body weight, fasting blood glucose, HbA(1c), serum lipids, apolipoproteins, blood pressure, serum uric acid, clotting factors, homocysteine, C-reactive protein, magnesium, calcium, iron, or ferritin. LDL oxidation in the test phase was higher than that seen in the control phase (12.1 +/- 5.4%, P < 0.034). Of the subjects originally recruited, more dropped out of the study for health and food preference reasons from the control phase (16 subjects) than the test phase (11 subjects). CONCLUSIONS: High-fiber cereal foods did not improve conventional markers of glycemic control or risk factors for CHD in type 2 diabetes over 3 months. Possibly longer studies are required to demonstrate the benefits of cereal fiber. Alternatively, cereal fiber in the diet may be a marker for another component of whole grains that imparts health advantages or a healthy lifestyle.

Mutat Res. 2000 Nov 6;454(1-2):77-88
Antimutagenic effects of wheat bran diet through modification of xenobiotic metabolising enzymes.
Helsby NA, Zhu S, Pearson AE, Tingle MD, Ferguson LR.
Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, 1000, Auckland, New Zealand.

Diets containing wheat bran (WB) protect against cancers of the colon or breast in rats, and may be beneficial in humans. In a previous study of rats treated with the carcinogen 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), inclusion of 10% wheat bran in the diet led to an apparent reduction in IQ metabolites but not of intact IQ in plasma. In the present study, male Wistar rats were fed diets containing 0, 10 or 20% wheat bran, and effects on xenobiotic metabolising enzymes compared. Wheat bran-supplementation showed differential effects on phase I enzymes, significantly increasing the activity of hepatic cytochrome P450 isozyme CYP3A2, but slightly reducing the activity of CYP1A1/2. The activities of both hepatic phase II detoxification enzymes glutathione-S-transferase and glucuronosyl transferase were also reduced. Western blotting revealed similar effects on _expression of the proteins. Interestingly, the _expression of xenobiotic metabolising enzymes (XME) in the colon appeared to be modulated independently of hepatic XME. Although the wheat bran-supplemented diet still led to an increased _expression of CYP3A, it now slightly increased CYP1A in the colon. However, 20% wheat bran significantly increased the _expression of both glutathione transferase isozymes, GST A1 & A2, in the colon. Natures Gold (NG) is a commercial wheat bran derivative which is lower than wheat bran in dietary fibre, but enriched in vitamins, minerals and various phytochemicals. Dietary supplementation with 20% Natures Gold led to similar trends as seen in wheat bran-fed rats, but more potent effects in both hepatic and colonic enzymes. The significance of these changes for activation of carcinogens to mutagenic metabolites was investigated using the Salmonella/mammalian microsome mutagenicity test. The activation of IQ and benzo[a]pyrene, but not cyclophosphamide, to a mutagen by hepatic S9 from wheat bran-fed or Natures Gold-fed rats was significantly reduced compared with S9 from animals on a diet lacking wheat bran. We suggest that modulation of xenobiotic metabolising enzymes may be an important component of cancer protection by wheat bran, and this effect may relate to micronutrients or cancer-protective non-nutrient phytochemicals rather more than to dietary fibre.

Cancer Res. 2000 Sep 1;60(17):4792-7
Preventive potential of wheat bran fractions against experimental colon carcinogenesis: implications for human colon cancer prevention.
Reddy BS, Hirose Y, Cohen LA, Simi B, Cooma I, Rao CV.
Nutritional Carcinogenesis and Chemoprevention Program, American Health Foundation, Valhalla, New York 10595, USA.

Epidemiological studies suggest an inverse relationship between the intake of dietary fiber, particularly fiber from cereal grains, and colon cancer risk. Animal model assays have demonstrated that the protective effects of dietary fiber on colon cancer development depend on the nature and source of the fiber. Wheat bran (WB) appears to inhibit colon tumorigenesis more consistently than do oat bran or corn bran. This study was designed to determine whether specific WB fractions such as WB fiber, WB lipids, or phytic acid differentially affect colon carcinogenesis in a well-established colon cancer model. In addition, the modulating effect of specific fractions of WB on the activities of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and COX-2 enzymes were assessed in colon tumors as those have been shown to play a role in tumor progression. At 5 weeks of age, groups of male F344 rats were assigned to one of six diets: a high-fat diet containing 10% WB (control diet) and experimental high-fat diets containing 10% dephytinized WB (WB-P), 10% defatted WB (WB-F), 10% dephytinized and defatted WB (WB-PF), 10% WB-PF fortified with 2% bran oil and/or with 0.4% phytate. At 7 weeks of age, all eats except those in the vehicle-treated groups were given two weekly s.c. injections of azoxymethane (AOM) at a dose rate of 15 mg/kg body weight/week. They continued to receive their respective diets until 50 weeks after carcinogen treatment and were then killed. Colon tumors were analyzed for iNOS, COX-1, and COX-2 _expression and enzymatic activities. Colon tumors were evaluated histopathologically and classified as adenomas and adenocarcinomas. We found that removal of phytic acid (WB-P) or lipids (WB-F) from WB had no significant effect on colon tumor incidence (% animals with tumors) or multiplicity (tumors/ animal), whereas removal of both phytate and lipids from WB (WB-PF) significantly increased colon tumor multiplicity and volume. Interestingly, WB-PF fortified with excess bran oil or with bran oil plus phytate significantly inhibited colon tumor incidence, multiplicity, and volume; but supplementation of WB-PF with phytate alone had no significant effect on colon tumorigenesis in rats suggesting that lipid fraction of WB possesses tumor-inhibitory properties. Moreover, feeding WB-PF diet significantly increased iNOS, total COX and COX-2 enzyme activities, and iNOS protein _expression in colon tumors as compared with wheat bran control diet. Feeding the WB-PF that was fortified with excess bran oil alone or with bran oil plus phytate significantly suppressed the activities of iNOS and COX-2 as well as the _expression of iNOS and COX-2 in colon tumors compared with that in rats fed the WB diet or WB-PF diet. The study demonstrates for the first time that the lipid fraction of wheat bran has strong colon tumor inhibitor properties. The exact mechanism(s) by which the lipid fraction of WB inhibits colon carcinogenesis in addition to alteration of iNOS and COX activities remains to be elucidated. Additional studies are warranted to identify biologically active constituents of lipid fraction of WB and their relative role in colon tumor inhibition.

Am J Med. 1999 Jan 25;106(1A):32S-37S
Protective role of wheat bran fiber: data from marker trials.
Earnest DL, Einspahr JG, Alberts DS.
Department of Medicine and the Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, Tucson 85724, USA.

The effects of wheat bran fiber on surrogate endpoint biomarkers for colon cancer risk have been studied in rats and humans. In both species, there is little evidence that wheat bran fiber significantly modifies epithelial cell proliferation. In rat studies, however, dietary supplementation with wheat bran fiber has decreased mucosal formation of aberrant crypt foci, an important marker currently used to estimate the efficacy of colon cancer chemoprevention agents. In humans, wheat bran fiber has been shown to consistently decrease fecal bile acid concentrations, mainly by reducing toxic secondary bile acids.

Dig Dis Sci. 1995 Feb;40(2):349-56
Effect of wheat bran in treatment of chronic nonorganic constipation. A double-blind controlled trial.
Badiali D, Corazziari E, Habib FI, Tomei E, Bausano G, Magrini P, Anzini F, Torsoli A.
Cattedra di Gastroenterologia I, Universita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy.

After a two-week basal period, 24 patients were randomly allocated to receive, with a crossover double-blind design, for two consecutive four-week periods, bran (20 g/24 hr) or placebo. The daily intake of water and dietary fibers was standardized. Symptomatology, oroanal transit time, bowel frequency, and stool weight were assessed in basal conditions and at week 4 and 8 of the treatment. Oroanal transit time decreased and bowel frequency and stool weight increased significantly during both bran and placebo administration in comparison with basal period. Bran treatment was more effective than placebo in improving bowel frequency and oroanal transit. During bran treatment oroanal transit time became normal only in patients with slow colonic transit and not in those with slow rectal transit. Neither the occurrence nor the severity of the most frequent accompanying symptoms of chronic constipation differed significantly between placebo and bran treatments.

Int J Cancer. 1993 Apr 1;53(6):902-6
Corn and wheat-flour consumption and mortality from esophageal cancer in Shanxi, China.
Chen F, Cole P, Mi Z, Xing LY.
Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami, School of Medicine, FL 33101.

In order to identify factors that may explain the great variation in mortality from esophageal cancer in Shanxi Province, China, an ecological study was carried out in 21 communes in that province. Mortality data were obtained from the registration records of the population of 148,928 during 1983 to 1988, which provided 744,640 person-years of observation. The data regarding average consumption of each kind of grain, potatoes and sweet potatoes were from food allocation records. The data regarding consumption of meat, eggs, fruit, vegetables and the data regarding alcohol drinking were from interviews. The concentrations of nitrite and of nitrate in pickled vegetables and in drinking water were measured. A significant positive relation was found between mortality rate and the consumption of dietary corn and wheat flour. Also, a significant inverse relation was found between the mortality rate and the dietary sorghum and millet level. The age- and sex-adjusted mortality-rate ratio of esophageal cancer for residents in the third and highest quartiles of corn- and wheat-flour consumption are 1.4 (95% CI: 1.1-2.0) and 3.2 (2.5-4.2), respectively, compared with those in the lowest quartile. Other factors studied did not contribute to the great variation in esophageal cancer mortality in the areas studied.

Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001 Dec;65(6):705-10
Wheat germ supplement reduces cyst and trophozoite passage in people with giardiasis.
Grant J, Mahanty S, Khadir A, MacLean JD, Kokoskin E, Yeager B, Joseph L, Diaz J, Gotuzzo E, Mainville N, Ward BJ.
Center for the Study of Host Resistance, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

The protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia is a major cause of waterborne enteric disease worldwide. Lectins are proteins that bind to carbohydrate (sugar) moieties. Potential targets for lectins are found on the surface of most single-celled organisms. Modest concentrations of wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) have been shown to inhibit G. lamblia excystation and trophozoite growth in vitro and can reduce cyst passage in mice infected with the closely related protozoan parasite, G. muris. Commercial preparations of wheat germ (WG) contain 13-53 microg of WGA per gram. We performed a double-masked, placebo-controlled study of dietary supplementation with WG in 63 subjects with giardiasis in Montreal and Lima (25 asymptomatic patients passing cysts; 38 patients with symptoms). Asymptomatic subjects received WG (2 g, 3 times a day) or placebo (cornstarch, 2 g, 3 times a day) for 10 days, followed by metronidazole (250 mg 3 times a day) for 7 days. Symptomatic subjects received metronidazole (250 mg 3 times a day) plus either WG or placebo for 7 days. Stool specimens were collected every day (Montreal) or every other day (Lima) for 10 days and on Day 35 for microscopic examination and coproantigen determination. Subjects kept a diary of symptoms for 10 days after recruitment. In asymptomatic subjects, both cyst passage and coproantigen levels were reduced by approximately 50% in those taking WG compared with the placebo group (P < 0.01 and P = 0.06, respectively). In symptomatic subjects, cyst passage and coproantigen levels fell precipitously in response to metronidazole therapy, and there were no clinically important differences between those receiving supplemental WG or placebo. However, symptoms appear to have resolved more rapidly in the subjects taking WG in addition to metronidazole. The WG supplement was well tolerated in both symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects. These data suggest that components of WG, possibly WGA, either alone or in combination with antiprotozoal agents, can influence the course of human giardiasi.

Pancreas. 2001 Aug;23(2):141-7
Wheat germ extract decreases glucose uptake and RNA ribose formation but increases fatty acid synthesis in MIA pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells.
Boros LG, Lapis K, Szende B, Tomoskozi-Farkas R, Balogh A, Boren J, Marin S, Cascante M, Hidvegi M.
UCLA School of Medicine, Harbor-UCLA Research and Education Institute, Torrance, California 90502, USA.

The fermented wheat germ extract with standardized benzoquinone composition has potent tumor propagation inhibitory properties. The authors show that this extract induces profound metabolic changes in cultured MIA pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells when the [1,2-13C2]glucose isotope is used as the single tracer with biologic gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. MIA cells treated with 0.1, 1, and 10 mg/mL wheat germ extract showed a dose-dependent decrease in cell glucose consumption. uptake of isotope into ribosomal RNA (2.4%, 9.4%, and 28.0%), and release of 13CO2. Conversely, direct glucose oxidation and ribose recycling in the pentose cycle showed a dose-dependent increase of 1.2%, 20.7%, and 93.4%. The newly synthesized fraction of cell palmitate and the 13C enrichment of acetyl units were also significantly increased with all doses of wheat germ extract. The fermented wheat germ extract controls tumor propagation primarily by regulating glucose carbon redistribution between cell proliferation-related and cell differentiation-related macromolecules. Wheat germ extract treatment is likely associated with the phosphorylation and transcriptional regulation of metabolic enzymes that are involved in glucose carbon redistribution between cell proliferation-related structural and functional macromolecules (RNA, DNA) and the direct oxidative degradation of glucose, which have devastating consequences for the proliferation and survival of pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells in culture.

J Nutr. 1992 Feb;122(2):317-26
Long-term wheat germ intake beneficially affects plasma lipids and lipoproteins in hypercholesterolemic human subjects.
Cara L, Armand M, Borel P, Senft M, Portugal H, Pauli AM, Lafont H, Lairon D.
Unite de recherche sur le transport des lipides, Unite 130, INSERM (National Institute of Health and Medical Research), Marseille, France.

In previous short-term studies in rats and humans, the ingestion of raw wheat germ lowered plasma triglycerides and cholesterol. Thus, the present study was designed to investigate the possible long-term effects of wheat germ intake. Diet supplementation with raw wheat germ or partially defatted wheat germ was tested in two separate groups of 10 and 9 free-living human subjects, respectively. They all exhibited hypercholesterolemia (6.14-9.67 mmol/L cholesterol) and 11 had hypertriglyceridemia. None was diabetic. Fasting blood samples were taken at the beginning of the study, after 4 wk of 20 g/d wheat germ intake, after 14 additional weeks of 30 g/d wheat germ intake and after 12 wk without any supplementation. Dietary records were kept for seven and three consecutive days, before and during the wheat germ intake periods, respectively. Raw wheat germ intake significantly decreased plasma cholesterol (-8.7%) and tended to reduce VLDL cholesterol (-19.6%) after 4 wk. After 14 additional weeks, plasma cholesterol (-7.2%) and LDL cholesterol (-15.4%) remained lower and plasma triglycerides (-11.3%) tended to be lower. The apo B:apo A1 ratio significantly decreased after both periods. Partially defatted wheat germ transiently decreased plasma triglycerides and cholesterol after a 4-wk intake. The present data indicate that wheat germ reduces cholesterolemia in the long term and could play a beneficial role in the dietary management of type IIa and IIb hyperlipidemia.

Immunology. 1982 Nov;47(3):551-6
Stimulation of colony formation and growth factor production of human T lymphocytes by wheat germ lectin.
Ulmer AJ, Scholz W, Flad HD.

Wheat germ lectin (WGL) induced proliferation of T-lymphocyte colony-forming units (TL-CFU) from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in a one stage agar culture needing higher cell numbers than phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). However, WGL preactivated TL-CFU in a first stage liquid culture for the growth of PHA-dependent T-lymphocyte colonies in a subsequent agar culture. These results suggested that WGL and PHA have biological activities in common. WGL and PHA both induced the _expression of Interleukin 2 (IL-2) receptors by PBMC to become responsive to IL-2, although production of IL-2 by WGL-stimulated PBMC was low compared with PHA-stimulated PBMC. This might account for the low proliferative response of PBMC to WGL.

Gen Dent. 2001 Nov-Dec;49(6):604-7
Rice as a vehicle for dietary fluoride uptake.
McIntyre J, Williams P, Ha HD, Najee S, Anh VT, Ivanow G, Ngo H, Fraser M.

The objective of this study was to analyze aspects of the metabolism and bio-availability of fluoride after consumption of a sample of polished white rice containing 5.6 ppm fluoride ion. Up to 400 g of fluoridated rice was consumed by three volunteer adult subjects over specific time periods on two separate occasions. Saliva concentrations were elevated immediately and remained so 90 minutes following ingestion, among other indications. It was concluded that polished rice has the potential to be a useful vehicle for dietary fluoride transport.

Atherosclerosis. 2002 Mar;161(1):199-207
Dose-dependent suppression of serum cholesterol by tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF25) of rice bran in hypercholesterolemic humans.
Qureshi AA, Sami SA, Salser WA, Khan FA.
Advanced Medical Research, 8251 Raymond Road, Madison, WI 53719, USA.

Tocotrienols are effective in lowering serum total and LDL-cholesterol levels by inhibiting the hepatic enzymic activity of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl coenzymeA (HMG-CoA) reductase through the post-transcriptional mechanism. alpha-Tocopherol, however, has an opposite effect (induces) on this enzyme activity. Since tocotrienols are also converted to tocopherols in vivo, it is necessary not to exceed a certain dose, as this would be counter-productive. The present study demonstrates the effects of various