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FOOD
TO EAT. DISHES AND MENUS
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General: Legumes
are a type of plant species in which the seeds grow to develop
into pods. They can be edible, like beans, soybeans, alfalfa,
lentils, peanuts and peas, or not, like clover. Beans are
known to cause stomach discomfort: they are hard to absorb,
because they contain stachyrose and raffinose, which are not
ingestible by the small intestine, but pass down to the colon.
But if before cooking they are soaked into water for at least
few hours (preferably overnight), they become much easier
to cook and cause less flatulence. Legumes are a valuable
part of a healthy diet, because they are low in fat, do not
contain cholesterol, and have a significant amount of fiber.
Adzuki and Chana dal - are one of the most healthy as they
are low in sugar and fat. |
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BEANS |
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Food Science and Human Nutrition,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1224.
Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) are
an important food staple in many traditional diets.
There is limited evidence to suggest an inverse relationship
between bean consumption and colon cancer. The objective
of this study was to determine whether consumption of
black beans and/or navy beans would reduce colon carcinogenesis
in rats. Rats were fed a modified AIN-93G diet (control)
or diets containing 75% black beans or 75% navy beans
for 4 wk, and then colon cancer was initiated by administration
of two injections of azoxymethane 1 wk apart. At 31
wk after the second injection, the incidence of colon
adenocarcinomas was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in
rats fed the black bean (9%) and navy bean (14%) diets
than in rats fed the control diet (36%). Total tumor
multiplicity was also significantly lower in rats fed
the black bean (1.1) and navy bean (1.0) diets than
in rats fed the control diet (2.2). The 44-75% reduction
in colon carcinogenesis in rats fed beans was attributed
to 1) more controlled appetites, leading to significantly
less body fat, and 2) much greater concentrations of
butyrate in the distal colon. It was concluded that
eating black beans and navy beans significantly lowered
colon cancer incidence and multiplicity.
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Departamento de Nutricao e Saude,
Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Brasil.
Caffeine is probably the most
frequently ingested pharmacologically active substance
in the world. It is found in common beverages (coffee,
tea, soft drinks), in products containing cocoa or chocolate,
and in medications. Because of its wide consumption
at different levels by most segments of the population,
the public and the scientific community have expressed
interest in the potential for caffeine to produce adverse
effects on human health. The possibility that caffeine
ingestion adversely affects human health was investigated
based on reviews of (primarily) published human studies
obtained through a comprehensive literature search.
Based on the data reviewed, it is concluded that for
the healthy adult population, moderate daily caffeine
intake at a dose level up to 400 mg day(-1) (equivalent
to 6 mg kg(-1) body weight day(-1) in a 65-kg person)
is not associated with adverse effects such as general
toxicity, cardiovascular effects, effects on bone status
and calcium balance (with consumption of adequate calcium),
changes in adult behaviour, increased incidence of cancer
and effects on male fertility. The data also show that
reproductive-aged women and children are 'at risk' subgroups
who may require specific advice on moderating their
caffeine intake. Based on available evidence, it is
suggested that reproductive-aged women should consume
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Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn,
Aberdeen, UK. ajp@rri.sari.ac.uk
The effects of inclusion of different
levels of raw kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) of high
lectin content (27 g/kg meal) in a high-quality (lactalbumin)
control diet were tested in nutritional trials on the
growth and metabolism of obese Zucker (fafa) rats and
their lean littermates in comparison with pair-fed controls.
All diets contained 100 g total protein/kg and either
50 g lipids/kg (low fat) or 150 g lipids/kg (moderate
fat). The growth of both obese and lean rats on bean
diets was retarded by the daily bean intake in a dose-dependent
manner. However, most of this was because bean-fed rats
contained less body fat than the controls after 10 d.
Thus, after feeding low-fat diets containing up to 130
g kidney bean/kg (lectin intake < or = 0.2 g/kg body
weight (BW) per d) in both 10 d and 70 d trials, the
bodies of obese rats contained less fat but not protein
than their pair-fed controls. Moreover, by increasing
the lipid content of the diet to 150 g/kg, the level
of bean inclusion could be increased to 280 g/kg (lectin
intake > or = 0.4 g/kg BW per d) without loss of body
protein and skeletal muscle. Although these rats contained
more body fat than those which were fed on low-fat diets,
their weight reduction could be accounted for exclusively
by reduced lipid content. In contrast, significant body
protein loss occurred when the same diet of high lectin
content was fed to lean littermates. Plasma insulin
levels were significantly depressed in the obese Zucker
rats on bean diets but the pancreas was not significantly
enlarged nor its insulin content changed in 10 d trials.
However, significant pancreatic growth occurred on long-term
(70 d) bean feeding compared with pair-fed controls.
The results suggest that, in addition to animal nutrition,
it may also be possible to use the bean lectin as a
dietary adjunct or therapeutic agent to stimulate gut
function and ameliorate obesity if a safe and effective
dose-range can be established for human subjects.
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Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos
del Centro de la Republica (PROPAC), Research and Graduate
Studies in Food Science, School of Chemistry, Universidad
Autonoma de Queretaro, Queretaro, Qro., 76010 Mexico.
Beans were pearled to evaluate
the feasibility of increasing antioxidant activity and
phenolic antioxidants. Phenolics were concentrated mostly
in the hull fraction at about 56 mg of catechin equivalents
per gram of sample. The methanolic extracts of the pearled
bean samples were screened for antioxidant potential
using the beta-carotene-linoleate and the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) in vitro model systems. The pearled material,
also referred to as milled samples, exhibited antioxidant
activity that correlated with phenolic content and inhibited
DPPH significantly in a dose-dependent manner. Phenolics
and antioxidant activities were also examined in chromatographic
fractions of methanolic extracts of manually obtained
hulls that represented a model used previously to ascertain
antimutagenic activity. Fractions extracted with ethyl
acetate/acetone and acetone displayed antioxidant activity,
which implies potent free radical scavenging activity
with antimutagenic activity.
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| SOYBEANS |
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Lifeline Technologies, Chesterfield,
MO 63017, USA. Spilburg@aol.com
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this
work was to show that fat-free, lecithin-formulated
soy stanols lower cholesterol absorption and serum LDL
cholesterol. DESIGN: Reduction in cholesterol absorption
was measured in paired single-meal tests with or without
formulated soy stanols (acute test), and changes in
serum lipids were investigated in a 10-week, randomized,
double-blind parallel trial in which formulated stanols
or lecithin vehicle were given three times daily for
the last 4 weeks (chronic test). SUBJECTS/SETTING: Forty-five
normal or mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects were
recruited for both studies. The 21 subjects (16 female,
5 male; mean age 32.5 years) in the absorption studies
had the following mean lipid values: LDL cholesterol,
2.79 mmol/L and total cholesterol, 4.73 mmol/L. For
the lipid reduction, 24 subjects (16 female, 8 male;
mean age 50.6 years) were enrolled with mean LDL cholesterol
and total cholesterol of 3.72 mmol/L and 5.66 mmol/L,
respectively. INTERVENTION: Reduction in cholesterol
absorption was measured using a lemonade beverage or
egg whites that contained 625 mg stanols. Throughout
the chronic study, subjects followed the American Heart
Association Step I diet. During the 4-week treatment
phase, subjects consumed daily a lemonade-flavored beverage
containing either placebo or formulated soy stanols
(1.9 g). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Inhibition of cholesterol
absorption was determined from the difference in plasma
deuterated cholesterol enrichment after a test meal
containing stanol-lecithin and one with lecithin vehicle
only. In the chronic study, the primary endpoints were
changes in LDL and total cholesterol. STATISTICAL ANALYSES
PERFORMED: Paired or unpaired t tests were used to determine
statistical significance. RESULTS: Stanol-lecithin reduced
cholesterol absorption by 32.1% (P=.0045, n=10) and
by 38.2% (P=.0022, n=11) when delivered in a lemonade-flavored
beverage and in egg whites, respectively. Reduction
in cholesterol absorption was strongly related to the
initial level of absorbed cholesterol tracer in serum
(r(s)=-0.739). Stanol-lecithin given in a beverage reduced
total serum cholesterol by 10.1% (P=.0019, n=24) and
LDL cholesterol by 14.3% (P=.0016, n=24). APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS:
Powdered soy stanol-lecithin lowers cholesterol absorption
and LDL cholesterol when consumed in fat-free foods.
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Department of Preventive Medicine,
Faculty of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka
812-8582, Japan kengot@phealth.med.kyushu-u.ac.jp
Incidence rates of colorectal
cancer are relatively low in Asian populations, in which
soy foods are commonly consumed. Soybeans and soy foods
are an almost exclusive source of isoflavone intake.
In in vitro studies, isoflavones have been shown to
have various anticarcinogenic properties such as inhibition
of protein tyrosine phosphorylation, induction of apoptosis,
antiangiogenesis, and inhibition of DNA topoisomerase.
Thus the protective role of soy foods and isoflavones
in the etiology of colorectal cancer is a matter of
interest. We therefore reviewed animal and epidemiological
studies of colorectal cancer in relation to soybeans,
soy foods, and isoflavones. Animal studies fairly consistently
showed that soyfoods or isoflavones inhibited the formation
of aberrant crypt foci, but did not clearly demonstrate
an inhibitory effect of soy foods and isoflavones on
the development of chemically-induced colorectal cancer.
Several case-control studies have suggested that soy
food consumption may confer a reduced risk of colorectal
cancer although the findings are rather inconsistent.
Most of the previous studies, especially in Japan, ascertained
only the frequency of consuming selected soy foods,
and thus were defective as regards the measurement of
the total consumption of soy foods. Further epidemiological
studies are needed to clarify the role for soy foods
in colorectal carcinogenesis.
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Department of Nutrition, Loma Linda
University, Loma Linda, CA, USA.
Soyfoods have received considerable
attention during the past 5 years for their role in
disease prevention, especially in relation to heart
disease, osteoporosis, and cancer. However, limited
research also suggests that soy protein favorably affects
renal function. Much of the research interest in soy
is aimed at establishing the physiological effects of
isoflavones. Isoflavones are diphenolic compounds that
have a very limited distribution in nature. Soybeans
and soyfoods are, for practical purposes, the only nutritionally
relevant dietary sources of isoflavones. Isoflavones
are weak estrogens in that they bind to estrogen receptors,
but they also have important nonhormonal properties
as well. Initial speculation that soyfoods, and in particular
isoflavones, might promote bone health was based on
the estrogenic properties of isoflavones and the similarity
in structure between isoflavones and the osteoporosis
drug, ipriflavone, which is a synthetic isoflavone.
In ovariectomized rodents, isoflavones retard bone loss
almost as effectively as estrogen. Most research, but
not all, also indicates that soyfoods rich in isoflavones
favorably affect bone turnover and spinal bone mineral
density in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women.
However, studies conducted thus far have been of short
duration and involved small numbers of subjects. Furthermore,
no studies have actually examined the effect of soy
feeding on fracture risk. Thus, although the data in
general are encouraging, no firm conclusions can be
drawn about the relationship between soy consumption
and bone health. In addition to a possible direct effect
of isoflavones on bone tissue, soy protein when substituted
for animal protein may indirectly enhance bone strength.
Several studies have found that in comparison with animal
protein, soy protein decreases calcium excretion, a
result of the lower sulfur amino acid content of soy
protein. Although the high potassium content of soy
is a consideration, the evidence clearly indicates that
clinicians should consider recommending that their renal
patients incorporate soyfoods into their diet.
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Nutrition Matters, Inc, Townsend,
WA 98368, USA. markm@olympus.net
Legumes play an important role
in the traditional diets of many regions throughout
the world. In contrast in Western countries beans tend
to play only a minor dietary role despite the fact that
they are low in fat and are excellent sources of protein,
dietary fiber, and a variety of micronutrients and phytochemicals.
Soybeans are unique among the legumes because they are
a concentrated source of isoflavones. Isoflavones have
weak estrogenic properties and the isoflavone genistein
influences signal transduction. Soyfoods and isoflavones
have received considerable attention for their potential
role in preventing and treating cancer and osteoporosis.
The low breast cancer mortality rates in Asian countries
and the putative antiestrogenic effects of isoflavones
have fueled speculation that soyfood intake reduces
breast cancer risk. The available epidemiologic data
are limited and only weakly supportive of this hypothesis,
however, particularly for postmenopausal breast cancer.
The data suggesting that soy or isoflavones may reduce
the risk of prostate cancer are more encouraging. The
weak estrogenic effects of isoflavones and the similarity
in chemical structure between soybean isoflavones and
the synthetic isoflavone ipriflavone, which was shown
to increase bone mineral density in postmenopausal women,
suggest that soy or isoflavones may reduce the risk
of osteoporosis. Rodent studies tend to support this
hypothesis, as do the limited preliminary data from
humans. Given the nutrient profile and phytochemical
contribution of beans, nutritionists should make a concerted
effort to encourage the public to consume more beans
in general and more soyfoods in particular.
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| LENTIS |
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College of Pharmacy and Nutrition,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
Green lentils are an increasingly
popular food, but their effects on human colonic function
and serum lipids have been studied little. Nine healthy
males aged 19-38 y consumed for 3-wk periods a controlled
Western diet and the same diet supplemented with 130
g dry lentils/d [which contained 11.8 g non-starch polysaccharide
(NSP)] incorporated into loaves, cakes, and soups. Protein
was equilibrated with soy protein isolate and carbohydrate
with soft drinks. Radioopaque markers were used to calculate
mean transit time (MTT) and to correct fecal weight
for infrequency of bowel movements. Feces were collected
throughout the study and blood was taken on 2 d at the
end of each period. Lentils increased fecal weight from
131 +/- 12 g/d (means +/- SEM) to 189 +/- 17.4 g/d (44.9%)
(P < 0.005). MTT was unchanged: 46 +/- 6 h for the control
diet and 43 +/- 4 h for the lentils (NS). Fecal nitrogen
was increased to 2.49 +/- 0.08 g/d for lentils compared
with 1.74 +/- 0.09 g/d for the control diet (P < 0.001)
and urine nitrogen decreased to 15.31 +/- 0.52 g/d with
the lentils compared with 15.90 +/- 0.51 g/d for the
control diet (P < 0.05); nitrogen balance was unaffected.
Serum lipids were unchanged by addition of lentils to
the diet. Green lentils were effective in increasing
fecal weight and can therefore make a valuable contribution
to a healthy diet.
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Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai
Medical Center, Los Angeles, California.
The distal small intestine is
an especially potent site for carbohydrate-triggered
intestinal inhibition of gastric emptying of solids.
Poorly digestible carbohydrates, such as lentils, may
escape proximal absorption, travel over time to reach
these inhibitory mechanisms, and slow the gastric emptying
of a later meal. A slowing effect on gastric emptying
may be associated with a lowering effect on postprandial
glucose. The aims of this study were to determine (a)
whether lentils (a poorly digestible carbohydrate) vs.
bread (an easily digestible carbohydrate) eaten as a
premeal (with equal amounts of carbohydrates) slow the
gastric emptying of a second solid meal taken 4.0-4.5
hours later and (b) whether a slowing effect on the
gastric emptying of the second meal is associated with
a lower postprandial glucose response. We found that
in 7 dogs and 10 humans, gastric emptying of the second
meal was delayed after a lentil premeal compared with
a bread premeal. However, there was no difference in
the glucose response to the second meal under the two
conditions.
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| PEAS |
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Department of Agricultural Biochemistry
and Nutrition, University of Newcastle upon Tyne.
The digestion of non-starch polysaccharides
(NSP) was studied in rats given semi-purified diets
containing 0-500 g raw peas (Pisum sativum)/kg. NSP
were equally well digested at all inclusion levels with
digestibilities for individual constituents ranging
from 0.58 for xylans to 0.99 for arabinose-containing
polymers with a total NSP digestibility of 0.79. Increasing
the dietary pea inclusion rate increased the amount
of substrate flowing to the large bowel (LB) and this
was associated with marked increases in caecal tissue
and contents masses, a reduction in caecal transit time
from 0.88 to 0.43 d and a threefold increase in faecal
bacterial output. Caecal pH fell as did the molar proportions
of acetate, isobutyrate, isovalerate and valerate whilst
butyrate increased when peas were included in the diet.
Possible mechanisms for these fermentation end-product
changes are discussed. Pea inclusion in the diet was
associated with increased volatile fatty acid and 3-hydroxy
butyrate concentrations in portal and heart blood. It
was concluded that peas are a rich source of fermentable
polysaccharides which produce a LB fermentation pattern
of potential health benefit.
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URPOI & UFDNH, National Institute
for Agronomic Research (INRA), Rue de la Geraudiere,
BP 71627, 44316 Nantes Cedex, 03, France. guillon@nantes.inra.fr
Starch and fibre can be extracted,
using wet or dry processes, from a variety of grain
legumes and used as ingredients for food. alpha-Galactosides
can be isolated during wet processes from the soluble
extract. Starch isolates or concentrates are mostly
produced from peas, whereas dietary fibre fractions
from peas and soyabean are commercially available. The
physico-chemical characteristics of fibre fractions
very much depend on their origin, outer fibres being
very cellulosic whereas inner fibres contain a majority
of pectic substances. Inner fibres are often used as
texturing agents whereas outer fibres find their main
uses in bakery and extruded products, where they can
be introduced to increase the fibre content of the food.
Most investigations on impacts on health have been performed
on soyabean fibres. When positive observations were
made on lipaemia, glucose tolerance or faecal excretion,
they were unfortunately often obtained after non-realistic
daily doses of fibres. Legume starches contain a higher
amount of amylose than most cereal or tuber starches.
This confers these starches a lower bioavailability
than that of most starches, when raw or retrograded.
Their low glycaemic index can be considered as beneficial
for health and especially for the prevention of diseases
related to insulin resistance. When partly retrograded,
these starches can provide significant amount of butyrate
to the colonic epithelium and may help in colon cancer
prevention. alpha-Galactosides are usually considered
as responsible for flatus but their apparent prebiotic
effects may be an opportunity to valorize these oligosaccharides.
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| TOFU |
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Department of Family and Consumer
Sciences, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306, USA.
jkandiah@gw.bsu.edu
The purpose of this study was
to investigate iron status of premenopausal vegetarian
women consuming tofu or tofu plus orange juice. Following
a three day pre-period, 14 lacto-ovo vegetarians were
randomly divided into two experimental periods of 30
days each. For the first 30 days, one half of the subjects
(n = 7) received 6 oz (173 grams) of tofu/day (T) while
the other half of the subjects (n = 7) received 6 oz
of tofu/day along with 303 mg of vitamin C/d (TO). After
30 days, there was a crossover of the diets. Iron status
was assessed by measuring serum ferritin and hemoglobin
concentrations on the first day of the study and at
the end of each experimental period. The Mann Whitney-U
test was significant during the first (W = 17.5; Z =
-2.095; p = 0.0361) and over the second (W = 40.0; Z
= -2.611; p = 0.009) experimental periods which indicated
the change in hemoglobin levels for the T and TO groups
were different. Mean ranks showed a greater increase
in hemoglobin levels for the TO group. There was no
significant difference in the change in serum ferritin
levels between the T and TO groups over the first and
second experimental periods. In conclusion, bioavailability
of iron from tofu is enhanced by supplementation with
ascorbic acid.
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Department of Environmental Health,
Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
Tofu is a commonly consumed food
in China. Tofu may interfere with lead absorption and
retention because of its high calcium content. In this
observational study, the authors examined whether dietary
tofu intake was associated with blood lead levels among
young adults in Shenyang, China. The analyses included
605 men and 550 women who completed baseline questionnaires
and had blood lead measurements taken in 1996-1998 as
part of a prospective cohort study on reproductive health.
Mean blood lead levels were 13.2 microg/dl in men and
10.1 microg/dl in women. Blood lead levels were negatively
associated with tofu intake in both genders. A linear
trend test showed a 3.7% (0.5-microg/dl) decrease in
blood lead level with each higher category of tofu intake
(p = 0.003). The highest tofu intake group (> or =750
g/week) had blood lead levels 11.3% lower (95% confidence
interval: 4.1, 18.0) than those of the lowest tofu intake
group (<250 g/week). In all regression models, data
were adjusted for gender, age, height, body mass index,
district, cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, education,
occupation, use of vitamin supplements, season, and
dietary intake of meat, fish, vegetables, eggs, and
milk. In conclusion, the authors found a significant
inverse dose-response relation between tofu consumption
and blood lead levels in this Chinese population.
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National Institute on Aging, NIH,
USA.
OBJECTIVE: To examine associations
of midlife tofu consumption with brain function and
structural changes in late life. METHODS: The design
utilized surviving participants of a longitudinal study
established in 1965 for research on heart disease, stroke,
and cancer. Information on consumption of selected foods
was available from standardized interviews conducted
1965-1967 and 1971-1974. A 4-level composite intake
index defined "low-low" consumption as fewer
than two servings of tofu per week in 1965 and no tofu
in the prior week in 1971. Men who reported two or more
servings per week at both interviews were defined as
"high-high" consumers. Intermediate or less
consistent "low" and "high" consumption
levels were also defined. Cognitive functioning was
tested at the 1991-1993 examination, when participants
were aged 71 to 93 years (n = 3734). Brain atrophy was
assessed using neuroimage (n = 574) and autopsy (n =
290) information. Cognitive function data were also
analyzed for wives of a sample of study participants
(n = 502) who had been living with the participants
at the time of their dietary interviews. RESULTS: Poor
cognitive test performance, enlargement of ventricles
and low brain weight were each significantly and independently
associated with higher midlife tofu consumption. A similar
association of midlife tofu intake with poor late life
cognitive test scores was also observed among wives
of cohort members, using the husband's answers to food
frequency questions as proxy for the wife's consumption.
Statistically significant associations were consistently
demonstrated in linear and logistic multivariate regression
models. Odds ratios comparing endpoints among "high-high"
with "low-low" consumers were mostly in the
range of 1.6 to 2.0. CONCLUSIONS: In this population,
higher midlife tofu consumption was independently associated
with indicators of cognitive impairment and brain atrophy
in late life.
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| ALFALFA |
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We determine the effects of alfalfa
top saponins on cholesterol and bile acid balance in
eight cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). The
monkeys ate semipurified food containing cholesterol
with or without added saponins. The saponins decreased
cholesterolemia without changing the levels of high
density lipoprotein-cholesterol; hence, they reduced
the total cholesterol/high density lipoprotein-cholesterol
ratio. Furthermore, they decreased intestinal absorption
of cholesterol, increased fecal excretion of endogenous
and exogenous neutral steroids and bile acids, and decreased
the percent distribution of fecal deoxycholic and lithocholic
acids. The fecal excretion of fat was also slightly
increased, but steatorrhea did not occur. We saw no
signs of toxicity in the monkeys after 6 or 8 wk of
saponin ingestion. The data suggest that alfalfa top
saponins may be of use in the treatment of patients
with hypercholesterolemia, but long-term studies on
possible toxicity are needed before this therapy can
be recommended for humans.
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Intestinal absorption of cholesterol
was measured in control rats fed semipurified diets
and in rats fed alfalfa meal, in which saponins had
been previously extracted, or this extracted material
plus alfalfa saponins. A dose of 2 mg radioactive cholesterol
was administered intragastrically, and fecal excretion
of labeled neutral steroids measured. Absorption of
cholesterol was about 76% in control animals, and about
47% in alfalfa-red rats. Extraction of saponins from
alfalfa eliminated the cholesterol absorption-lowering
effect, while addition of 0.26% alfalfa saponins to
the extracted alfalfa restored its activity. The results
demonstrate that alfalfa saponins are responsible for
the effect of alfalfa meal in reducing cholesterol absorption,
and that alfalfa fiber is not involved in this activity.
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Plasma cholesterol concentrations
were reduced in 3 human volunteers during ingestion
of diets containing alfalfa seeds (AS) for 3 weeks.
No signs of toxicity were detected through serum determinations
of multiple parameters. The ingestion of AS in rats
decreased the concentration of plasma cholesterol, reduced
intestinal absorption of exogenous and endogenous cholesterol,
and increased fecal biliary excretion.
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